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| Pregnancy and Infants |
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  Copper
is essential for the normal growth and development of human fetuses,
infants, and children. This was the conclusion of a review of a large
body of published research compiled by Harry McArdle and Ann Ralph
at the prestigious Rowett Research Institute in Scotland and made
available in a monograph by ICA.
According to the authors, the human fetus accumulates copper rapidly
from its mother during the third trimester of pregnancy, apparently
to ensure that it will have adequate supplies to carry out metabolic
functions after birth - including cellular respiration, melanin pigment
and connective tissue synthesis, iron metabolism, free radical defense,
gene expression, and the normal functioning of the heart and immune
systems.
At birth, a healthy infant will have four times the concentration
of copper as a full-grown adult. The copper will be stored in the
liver and used to satisfy the metabolic needs of the infant. Recent
research has revealed that the very young have special biochemical
mechanisms for adequately managing copper in the body while their
permanent life-long mechanisms develop and mature.
Avoiding Copper Deficiency During Pregnancy. Pregnant mothers
who are severely deficient in copper could increase the risk of health
problems in their fetuses and infants. These problems include low
birth weight, muscle weakness and neurological problems.
However, copper deficiency in pregnant women can be avoided with a
balanced diet containing nuts, legumes, fruits, organ meats, whole
wheat breads, and certain delicacies, such as oysters and chocolate.
An excess intake of iron and zinc may hinder copper availability in
the body. This is of particular concern to pregnant women who may
be prescribed iron supplements to treat anemia or zinc supplements
to treat a cold. Pregnant women are advised to consult their doctors
to be sure that prenatal supplements containing iron and zinc also
have nutritionally-significant amounts of copper.
Copper in Milk. When a newborn baby is breast fed, the baby's
liver and the mother's breast milk will provide sufficient quantities
of copper for the first 4-6 months of life. When the baby is weaned,
a balanced diet should provide adequate sources of copper.
Researchers have found that mother's milk is a sufficient source of
copper for the infant's first four months. Cow's milk and older infant
formulations, however, are depleted in copper. This has prompted concerns
that early weaning to cow's milk and unfortified baby formulations
can cause a copper deficiency in infants. To alleviate these concerns,
most infant formulas are now fortified with copper. However, researchers
found that copper absorption from infant formulas is not as effective
as from breast milk.
Premature infants are at particular risk of copper deficiency, partly
because their stores are lower than term babies but also because they
do not absorb copper as well as their normal counterparts. Generally,
potential harm is minimized by feeding either breast milk or specially
fortified milks.
Copper in Young Children. Most well-nourished children have
adequate intakes of copper. Health-compromised children, however,
including those who are premature, malnourished, have a low birth
weight, suffer from infections, and those who are experiencing a rapid
catch-up growth spurt, are at elevated risk for copper deficiency.
Fortunately, diagnosis of copper deficiency in children is clear and
reliable, once the condition is suspected. Supplements usually facilitate
a full recovery.
Future Research. Future research on the role of copper in pregnant
women, fetuses, and infants will be focused on enhancing our knowledge
about copper requirements and metabolism in growing children; learning
more about marginal deficiency in children; reducing the uncertainty
regarding how much copper is essential and toxic to humans; developing
effective, easier tests to measure copper status in infants and children;
and developing functional tests (e.g., blood pressure, cardiac function,
sleep patterns) to evaluate marginal copper deficiency. |
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